Outdoor Recreation

Frontmatter

1. Introduction to Outdoor Recreation and Recreation Ecology

Abstract

Here we define outdoor recreation, recreation impacts, and recreation ecology which are at the core of this book. The management of wilderness recreation in the USA is discussed as an example of how a recreation management system for protected areas operates, in particular how the National Park Service (NPS) has been controlled by legislative acts, policies, and guidelines. Strategies for defining visitor carrying capacity and monitoring visitor impacts are discussed along with site and visitor management techniques and strategies for educating the recreationists. The NPS originally employed the Visitor Experience and Resource Protection and decision-making framework for evaluating the visitor carrying capacity limits and currently uses the Visitor Use Management planning framework and decision-making framework which are described in this chapter.

David Huddart

2. Recreational Walking

Abstract

The various categories of recreational walking are described in this chapter, including devotional trails and formal and informal trails, and the numbers involved in the activity are estimated. Trampling impacts on vegetation, soil, and water quality, and the resultant footpath erosion are discussed and evaluated, including the impacts of hiking poles. The ways to assess the trampling patterns caused are summarised, including experimental trampling. The effects of recreational walking, including dog walking, on wildlife, especially on birds, through flight and behaviour changes, are evaluated. Techniques for managing the footpath surface are described such as creating more resistant surfaces, such as using geotextiles, surface nettings, chemical binders and surface glues, mulch mats, aggregate paths, and boardwalks. Vegetation reinstatement using transplanting techniques and seeding is evaluated, and an example of management experiments are described and evaluated from the Three Peaks project (Yorkshire Dales, UK).

David Huddart

3. Mountain Marathons, Adventure Racing, and Mountain Tours

Abstract

This chapter first defines mountain marathons, adventure racing, and mountain tours and gives examples of a range of such activities and events. It then briefly discusses the history and diversity of mountain marathon, adventure racing, and high mountain tours and safety/legal issues before presenting recent data on user numbers. The final part of the chapter focuses on specific environmental impacts associated with particular events such as the UK’s National Three Peaks Challenge and the Yorkshire Three Peaks Challenge and highlights the need for more research. The final section considers the management of these activities and gives some examples of education initiatives that have been used in management attempts.

Tim Stott

4. Recreational Climbing and Scrambling

Abstract

In this chapter, the types of climbing are defined and numbers involved are estimated. The effects of traditional summer climbing on cliff vegetation and other biota, like gastropods, are evaluated. This includes “gardening,” footpath erosion up to the crags, at the tops, and a decrease in rare and endangered species and tree damage from abseiling and belaying. The effects of cliff micro-topography and climbers’ preferences are discussed with regard to the vegetation distribution and the fact that not all effects are negative. The impacts on bird populations are evaluated, and the damage to the rock by ropes, chalk, protection, and the creation of rock polish is discussed. Other environmental effects from bouldering, winter, and mixed climbing are evaluated. The management to counteract these impacts such as management plans, memorandums of understanding, liaison groups, closures, seasonal restrictions, star systems in guides, permits, and outreach and education, including codes of conduct, are discussed and evaluated.

David Huddart

5. Gorge Walking, Canyoneering, or Canyoning

Abstract

Gorge walking, canyoneering, and canyoning use similar techniques and are undertaken by a relatively small number of participants. The impacts and management approaches from three case studies are illustrated. In the UK there is preserved a rare, specialised but diverse flora where the ecology can suffer types of impact and floral loss. Controlling impacts are suggested, like sacrificial gorges, gorge rotation, Adopt-a-Gorge schemes, and educational methods.

In the Blue Mountains (Australia), the assumption by managers was that canyons were fragile, at risk from degradation, leading to unsustainable biological impact. It has been shown that the participants were lower than thought, concentrated in a few locations, and that the impacts on stream macro-invertebrates and water quality negligible.

In the classic canyons of the USA, impacts by bolting, rock damage by ropes, and tree damage from anchors and slings have been documented. Management plans for the Arches and the Grand Canyon National Parks include booking systems and group-size regulations. General management issues include banning, restoration, and clean-up projects and conduct codes and ethics and education through skills and leadership training.

David Huddart

6. Off-Road and All-Terrain Vehicles, Including Snowmobiling

Abstract

This chapter first defines off-road and all-terrain vehicles, including snowmobile, and gives illustrated examples of a range of such vehicles. It then briefly discusses the history and diversity of use of such vehicles before presenting recent data on user numbers. The final part of the chapter focuses on specific environmental impacts associated with off-road, ATV, and snowmobiles which include damage to soil and vegetation, water/air pollution and noise, and disturbance to wildlife. The final section considers the management of these activities and gives some examples of education initiatives that have been used in management attempts.

Tim Stott

7. Mountain Biking

Abstract

This chapter first defines mountain biking (MTB), its history and development, and the range of different bikes used. It then examines participation numbers before considering the history, designs, and disciplines with MTB. The final part of the chapter focuses on specific environmental impacts: damage to soil, vegetation, and water and the impacts on wildlife. The final section considers the management of these activities such as trail design and the development of the forest-based MTB centres in the UK and gives some examples of education initiatives such as the International Mountain Biking Association Rules of the Trail which have been used in management attempts.

Tim Stott

8. Camping, Wild Camping, Snow Holing, and Bothies

Abstract

This chapter first defines camping and presents a camping spectrum which ranges from survival camping to trailer tents, caravans, and motorhomes. It then discusses snow caves, quinzhees and igloos, and finally bothies before examining participation numbers. The final part of the chapter focuses on specific environmental impacts: damage to soil and vegetation, impacts on water, and the impacts on wildlife. The final section considers the management of these activities such as trail design and the development of hardened campsites as in the Overland Track in Tasmania. There is discussion on some attempts to manage the impact of human faeces on water resources, with examples from the Cairngorms, UK. Finally, examples of how the impact of camping on wildlife has been managed are presented.

Tim Stott

9. Horseback Riding

Abstract

Due to the scale and varied environmental impact of horseback riding on the environment, its increasing popularity, and the conflict with other recreational users, it needs to be emphasised to horseback riders that for continued access to wilderness areas, national and state parks, and conservation areas, best-practice management is imperative. This includes planning trail location and design; trail construction and maintenance; visitor regulation such as confinement, the amount and timing of use; education to improve user knowledge and change user behaviour using codes of conduct circulated through interpretative information, public lectures, and discussions through the internet, associations, and clubs; and greater policing and enforcement by management of strategies in place. Where unacceptable impacts occur and significant conservation and biodiversity values are threatened, prohibiting horseback riding completely in certain areas might be necessary.

David Huddart

10. Geocaching, Letterboxing, and Orienteering

Abstract

One of the opening statements by the New Forest Review Group (1988) that orienteering “by its very nature causes very considerable disturbance to wildlife and damage to flora over wide areas” has been shown to be unsupported. There is trampling of vegetation, but little evidence of disturbance of mammals and birds. It has also been shown that the reason for this is that orienteering, by its very nature, and by procedures of good practice, is a sport of low ecological impact. There also seem to be many wide-ranging educational benefits of orienteering, letterboxing, and geocaching and particularly the development of environmental stewardship, where the benefits outweigh the minor environmental impact. However, the growth in popularity of these activities needs careful monitoring and further research carried out.

David Huddart

11. Skiing, Snowboarding, and Snowshoeing

Abstract

This chapter first defines some of the different disciplines of skiing (alpine, Nordic, telemark, ski mountaineering), snowboarding, and snowshoeing. It then examines snow sport competition before examining participation numbers. The final part of the chapter focuses on specific environmental impacts of snow sports: damage to soil, vegetation, water, and the impacts on wildlife. There is discussion about artificial snowmaking and its environmental impacts. The final section considers the management of these activities and the impacts of climate change on snow sport.

Tim Stott

12. Caving

Abstract

Caving damages a specialised, rare, and delicate environment which can never recover. The aim is to minimise this mostly unintentional damage. The number of cavers is small but they can damage caves in many ways: the geological environment, cave fauna and flora which is specialised and often endemic. Bats are important and have suffered in North America from white nose syndrome, partly spread by cavers. Many potential management strategies for caves exist including cave plans, conservation codes, and National Conservation policies. Controlling access can be important and there are access agreements, zero, restricted or periodic access, booking systems, gating, sacrificial caves, zoning in caves, cave exploration policies, and cave fauna management, including building artificial bat caves. Education for cavers includes minimal impact codes, websites, leader and instructor schemes, involvement in cave conservation planning, and cave adoption schemes and alternatives to caving, such as the use of mines and artificial caves.

David Huddart

13. Water Sports and Water-Based Recreation

Abstract

This chapter first lists some of the different water sport disciplines and then defines those on which the chapter will focus—motorboating/powerboating, canoeing, kayaking, jet skiing, rafting, rowing, sailing, surfing, water skiing, sailing, and windsurfing—distinguishing between motorised and non-motorised activities. It then examines relative and actual participation numbers. The final part of the chapter focuses on specific environmental impacts of water sports: physical impacts to aquatic vegetation, the spread of invasive species, erosion of banks and shores, water pollution and its costs. There is discussion about the impacts of water sports on wildlife as well as the chemical impacts on water sports (heavy metals, hydrocarbons). The final section considers the management of these activities and gives examples of ways in which users can be educated.

Tim Stott

14. Recreational Scuba Diving and Snorkelling

Abstract

In this chapter, recreation diving is defined, and the numbers involved and impacts discussed. However, it is difficult to quantify the impact of any one of many stressors on coral reefs independently of the others. There is often a lack of scientific understanding of the interrelationships which limits the success of efforts to effectively create policy and regulations preventing reef decline. The impacts include direct trampling by reef walking, from the effects of pontoons (installation, anchor damage, fish feeding), direct impacts from diver behaviour including sediments raised, the effects on the corals (including effects of sunscreens), impacts on fish communities and kelp forests. The ways of managing activities to reduce the impacts are discussed, including reducing use levels, modifying diver behaviour, establishing underwater diving and sculpture trails, artificial reefs, fee charging changes, and diver involvement in conservation projects.

David Huddart

15. Recreational Fishing

Abstract

The definitions of recreation fishing and the numbers involved are discussed in this chapter. The direct impacts on fish stocks, on endangered fish species through trophy fishing, on size selection and fish community structure, including truncation of age and size structure, are reviewed. There is a loss of genetic diversity and evolutionary changes. Discards and catch-and-release impacts and the effects of invasive, non-native species are discussed. There are a series of indirect impacts such as habitat disturbance, walking tracks, off-road vehicles, effects on wildlife, loss of fishing gear, boat strikes, nutrient impact, pollution, plastics and pathogen transmission. The management of recreation fishing impacts such as the use of marine protection areas, best practice guidelines and codes of conduct, and the education of practitioners, including mandatory programmes, are reviewed.

David Huddart

16. Expeditions

Abstract

This chapter first defines what constitutes an expedition and then gives examples of expeditions with different purposes and modes of travel and concludes that many use camping (discussed in Chap. 8) as their primary accommodation. It then examines the history of overseas expeditions (e.g. the South Pole and Everest expeditions) before examining participation numbers. The final part of the chapter focuses on specific environmental impacts of expeditions in four areas: movement and access, campsites on local communities, and the impacts of expedition fieldwork. The final section considers the management of these impacts and gives examples of ways in which expedition organisers can minimise the impact of their expeditions.

Tim Stott

17. Overall Summary

Abstract

The direct impacts of outdoor recreation are summarised in this chapter. Because of future increase in this recreation, which is estimated, both recreation management and environmental impact management are necessary. Generalisations related to recreation ecology research, in particular disturbance-use relationships, are discussed, and the need for further research is emphasised.

David Huddart

Backmatter