1 Introduction
2 Methods
2.1 Study Design
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Low density wood Fiberboard — 7.8 ± 0.1 kg per sheet
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Orientated strand board (OSB) — 22.5 ± 0.3 kg per sheet
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Pallets — 16.2 ± 0.6 kg per pallet
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Particle board — 26.1 ± 0.1 kg per sheet
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Plywood — 19.5 ± 1.6 kg per sheet
2.2 Structure
2.3 Training Protocol
2.4 Instrumentation
2.5 Fire Dynamics Visual Classification
3 Results and Discussion
3.1 Thermal Exposure Analysis
3.1.1 Overview
Fuel | Median | Range |
---|---|---|
Fiberboard | 633 | 457–908 |
OSB | 532 | 458–629 |
Pallet | 933 | 842–1202 |
Particle board | 608 | 548–663 |
Plywood | 604 | 549–653 |
Fuel | Median | Range |
---|---|---|
Fiberboard | 162 | 138–231 |
OSB | 127 | 112–167 |
Pallet | 161 | 122–300 |
Particle board | 147 | 107–186 |
Plywood | 142 | 117–178 |
3.1.2 Conditions at Firefighter Head Height
Fuel | Gas temperature | Vertical heat flux | Horizontal heat flux | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Median | Range | Median | Range | Median | Range | |
Front | ||||||
Fiberboard | 102 | 95–111 | 8.2 | 6.5–8.8 | 6.8 | 6.1–8.3 |
OSB | 102 | 81–116 | 8.4 | 6.8–9.8 | 5.9 | 4.6–7.3 |
Pallets | 94 | 69–109 | 6.9 | 4.4–8.2 | 5.1 | 3.4–5.9 |
Particle board | 96 | 86–103 | 7.6 | 7.2–8.7 | 6.0 | 5.2–6.4 |
Plywood | 87 | 76–111 | 8.1 | 7.1–8.6 | 5.9 | 5.1–6.7 |
Middle | ||||||
Fiberboard | 96 | 92–102 | 5.3 | 4.2–5.6 | 6.6 | 5.0–7.4 |
OSB | 93 | 86–107 | 5.7 | 5.0–6.7 | 5.6 | 4.1–6.0 |
Pallets | 99 | 67–107 | 4.8 | 3.2–6.3 | 4.9 | 3.1–6.3 |
Particle board | 91 | 88–105 | 5.1 | 4.9–5.9 | 4.9 | 4.7–6.0 |
Plywood | 82 | 80–100 | 5.6 | 4.8–5.8 | 5.5 | 5.1–5.6 |
Rear | ||||||
Fiberboard | 71 | 61–74 | 1.4 | 1.2–1.7 | 1.6 | 1.5–1.7 |
OSB | 72 | 59–92 | 2.1 | 1.9–2.7 | 1.7 | 1.6–2.5 |
Pallets | 69 | 53–86 | 1.7 | 0.9–2.5 | 2.1 | 1.1–2.4 |
Particle board | 69 | 63–76 | 1.8 | 1.6–1.9 | 1.7 | 1.4–2.0 |
Plywood | 60 | 55–80 | 1.6 | 1.5–2.2 | 1.5 | 1.3–1.9 |
Fuel | Gas temperature | Vertical heat flux | Horizontal heat flux | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Median | Range | Median | Range | Median | Range | |
Front | ||||||
Fiberboard | 153 | 151–160 | 15.8 | 14.5–19.5 | 13.4 | 10.7–14.5 |
OSB | 154 | 123–168 | 24.2 | 18.0–27.4 | 15.4 | 12.3–20.2 |
Pallets | 150 | 124–170 | 14.2 | 10.2–16.5 | 9.6 | 7.0–12.3 |
Particle board | 146 | 128–154 | 18.3 | 18.0–23.9 | 14.5 | 13.9–15.0 |
Plywood | 145 | 128–155 | 20.0 | 18.3–22.8 | 16.0 | 12.5–16.6 |
Middle | ||||||
Fiberboard | 151 | 144–164 | 9.4 | 7.5–11.2 | 11.1 | 10.5–12.8 |
OSB | 146 | 131–158 | 17.8 | 13.0–21.5 | 15.4 | 10.4–16.6 |
Pallets | 159 | 121–163 | 8.3 | 7.9–10.5 | 8.8 | 8.0–12.5 |
Particle board | 146 | 135–163 | 12.4 | 10.7–13.3 | 12.2 | 10.6–13.8 |
Plywood | 137 | 134–153 | 12.3 | 10.7–13.9 | 13.7 | 12.3–15.5 |
Rear | ||||||
Fiberboard | 128 | 122–140 | 4.5 | 3.9–5.3 | 4.9 | 4.8–5.3 |
OSB | 129 | 113–149 | 6.1 | 5.1–29.2 | 6.0 | 5.0–16.4 |
Pallets | 135 | 114–144 | 4.9 | 3.8–6.9 | 5.8 | 4.9–6.8 |
Particle board | 127 | 113–143 | 6.1 | 5.5–8.3 | 5.8 | 5.1–6.4 |
Plywood | 122 | 115–138 | 5.3 | 4.1–6.2 | 5.1 | 4.7–5.6 |
3.1.3 Thermal Class Analysis
Class | Heat flux (kW/m\(^2\)) | Gas temperature (°C) |
---|---|---|
Routine | \(<2\) | \(<70\) |
Ordinary | 2–12 | 70–200 |
Emergency | \(>12\) | \(>200\) |
Fuel | Gas temperature | Heat flux | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Routine (< 70°C) | Ordinary (70–200°C) | Emergency (> 200°C) | Routine (< 2 kW/m2) | Ordinary (2–12 kW/m\(^2\)) | Emergency (>12 kW/m2) | |
Front | ||||||
Fiberboard | 00:53 ± 00:35 | 14:06 ± 01:44 | – | 00:09 ± 00:11 | 13:57 ± 01:27 | 00:53 ± 00:35 |
OSB | 02:12 ± 00:52 | 09:31 ± 00:52 | – | 00:20 ± 00:11 | 08:48 ± 01:02 | 02:34 ± 00:59 |
Pallets | 03:19 ± 03:09 | 11:08 ± 01:59 | – | 00:51 ± 01:25 | 13:11 ± 01:19 | 00:25 ± 00:24 |
Particle board | 02:39 ± 00:38 | 10:15 ± 00:58 | – | 00:22 ± 00:10 | 10:31 ± 00:40 | 02:01 ± 00:31 |
Plywood | 03:02 ± 01:42 | 09:53 ± 01:06 | – | 00:16 ± 00:03 | 10:56 ± 01:16 | 01:42 ± 00:33 |
Middle | ||||||
Fiberboard | 01:29 ± 00:54 | 13:30 ± 01:54 | – | 00:34 ± 00:37 | 14:24 ± 01:54 | 00:01 ± 00:02 |
OSB | 02:29 ± 00:55 | 09:13 ± 00:58 | – | 01:06 ± 00:09 | 09:58 ± 00:21 | 00:38 ± 00:26 |
Pallets | 03:24 ± 03:16 | 11:03 ± 02:08 | – | 01:42 ± 02:00 | 12:43 ± 01:11 | 00:02 ± 00:04 |
Particle board | 02:44 ± 00:45 | 10:10 ± 01:03 | – | 01:18 ± 00:25 | 11:27 ± 00:51 | 00:09 ± 00:10 |
Plywood | 03:12 ± 01:32 | 09:43 ± 00:43 | – | 00:38 ± 00:09 | 12:03 ± 00:49 | 00:14 ± 00:07 |
Rear | ||||||
Fiberboard | 10:00 ± 01:34 | 04:59 ± 00:57 | – | 11:31 ± 01:15 | 03:27 ± 00:16 | – |
OSB | 06:19 ± 01:46 | 05:23 ± 01:57 | – | 07:02 ± 00:49 | 04:37 ± 01:01 | 00:02 ± 00:03 |
Pallets | 08:11 ± 03:34 | 06:16 ± 02:31 | – | 09:56 ± 02:10 | 04:31 ± 00:38 | – |
Particle board | 07:58 ± 00:43 | 04:56 ± 00:48 | – | 09:02 ± 00:18 | 03:52 ± 00:22 | – |
Plywood | 08:29 ± 02:21 | 04:26 ± 01:35 | – | 08:49 ± 01:24 | 04:06 ± 00:37 | – |
3.1.4 PPE Damage Risk
NFPA 1981 edition | Exposure (kW/m2) | Description of damage |
---|---|---|
2007 | 5 | Microcracking within 5 min exposures |
8 | Hole formation within approximately 20 min | |
10 | Microcracking within one and a half minute exposures | |
15 | Lens softening after 30 s | |
Hole formation between 1.5 and 4 min | ||
2013 | 15 | Bubbling after 2 min |
3.1.5 Firefighters Thermal Exposure Control Options
Fuel | 1.2 m above floor | 0.9 m above floor | 0.6 m above floor | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Median | Range | Median | Range | Median | Range | |
Front | ||||||
Fiberboard | 171 | 151–186 | 102 | 95–111 | 87 | 81–92 |
OSB | 187 | 181–223 | 102 | 81–116 | 81 | 73–91 |
Pallets | 186 | 113–213 | 94 | 69–109 | 78 | 59–91 |
Particle board | 176 | 158–209 | 96 | 86–103 | 81 | 76–89 |
Plywood | 172 | 158–202 | 87 | 76–111 | 73 | 70–89 |
Middle | ||||||
Fiberboard | 146 | 134–156 | 96 | 92–102 | 75 | 66–79 |
OSB | 166 | 151–196 | 93 | 86–107 | 66 | 63–77 |
Pallets | 169 | 103–182 | 99 | 67–107 | 69 | 47–81 |
Particle board | 151 | 137–174 | 91 | 88–105 | 68 | 61–79 |
Plywood | 143 | 137–180 | 82 | 80–100 | 61 | 50–76 |
Rear | ||||||
Fiberboard | 99 | 89–102 | 71 | 61–74 | 52 | 45–56 |
OSB | 113 | 99–135 | 72 | 59–92 | 50 | 40–61 |
Pallets | 111 | 74–120 | 69 | 53–86 | 45 | 39–62 |
Particle board | 103 | 96–109 | 69 | 63–76 | 49 | 46–54 |
Plywood | 96 | 88–118 | 60 | 55–80 | 42 | 37–58 |
Location | Class | Fuel | 1.2 m above floor | 0.9 m above floor | 0.6 m above floor |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Front | Routine (< 70°C) | Fiberboard | 00:06 ± 00:06 | 00:53 ± 00:35 | 02:01 ± 01:00 |
OSB | 00:24 ± 00:20 | 02:12 ± 00:52 | 03:45 ± 00:45 | ||
Pallets | 01:18 ± 02:26 | 03:19 ± 03:09 | 05:23 ± 03:30 | ||
Particle board | 00:44 ± 00:23 | 02:39 ± 00:38 | 03:45 ± 00:50 | ||
Plywood | 00:29 ± 00:31 | 03:02 ± 01:42 | 04:20 ± 01:39 | ||
Ordinary (70–200°C) | Fiberboard | 10:56 ± 01:23 | 14:06 ± 01:44 | 12:58 ± 02:04 | |
OSB | 06:23 ± 01:00 | 09:31 ± 00:52 | 07:57 ± 00:50 | ||
Pallets | 08:44 ± 01:39 | 11:08 ± 01:59 | 09:04 ± 02:28 | ||
Particle board | 07:56 ± 00:18 | 10:15 ± 00:58 | 09:09 ± 01:03 | ||
Plywood | 08:14 ± 00:57 | 09:53 ± 01:06 | 08:35 ± 00:50 | ||
Emergency (> 200°C) | Fiberboard | 03:57 ± 00:17 | – | – | |
OSB | 04:55 ± 01:16 | – | – | ||
Pallets | 04:24 ± 01:26 | – | – | ||
Particle board | 04:14 ± 00:49 | – | – | ||
Plywood | 04:11 ± 00:32 | – | – | ||
Middle | Routine (< 70°C) | Fiberboard | 00:23 ± 00:16 | 01:29 ± 00:54 | 06:28 ± 02:40 |
OSB | 00:48 ± 00:24 | 02:29 ± 00:55 | 06:13 ± 01:04 | ||
Pallets | 01:27 ± 02:33 | 03:24 ± 03:16 | 07:34 ± 04:26 | ||
Particle board | 01:19 ± 00:32 | 02:44 ± 00:45 | 06:55 ± 02:04 | ||
Plywood | 01:05 ± 00:46 | 03:12 ± 01:32 | 08:26 ± 03:35 | ||
Ordinary (70–200°C) | Fiberboard | 11:23 ± 01:29 | 13:30 ± 01:54 | 08:31 ± 02:06 | |
OSB | 06:52 ± 00:35 | 09:13 ± 00:58 | 05:29 ± 01:18 | ||
Pallets | 09:16 ± 01:10 | 11:03 ± 02:08 | 06:53 ± 03:16 | ||
Particle board | 08:11 ± 00:23 | 10:10 ± 01:03 | 05:59 ± 02:15 | ||
Plywood | 08:25 ± 00:26 | 09:43 ± 00:43 | 04:29 ± 02:46 | ||
Emergency (> 200°C) | Fiberboard | 03:13 ± 00:10 | – | – | |
OSB | 04:03 ± 00:49 | – | – | ||
Pallets | 03:44 ± 01:04 | – | – | ||
Particle board | 03:24 ± 00:36 | – | – | ||
Plywood | 03:25 ± 00:22 | – | – | ||
Rear | Routine (< 70°C) | Fiberboard | 04:47 ± 01:36 | 10:00 ± 01:34 | 13:31 ± 01:24 |
OSB | 02:36 ± 00:59 | 06:19 ± 01:46 | 10:14 ± 01:03 | ||
Pallets | 04:35 ± 03:33 | 08:11 ± 03:34 | 12:45 ± 02:36 | ||
Particle board | 03:47 ± 00:25 | 07:58 ± 00:43 | 11:33 ± 00:46 | ||
Plywood | 04:52 ± 02:06 | 08:29 ± 02:21 | 11:59 ± 01:49 | ||
Ordinary (70–200°C) | Fiberboard | 10:03 ± 01:47 | 04:59 ± 00:57 | 01:28 ± 00:37 | |
OSB | 08:34 ± 00:43 | 05:23 ± 01:57 | 01:28 ± 01:10 | ||
Pallets | 09:26 ± 01:55 | 06:16 ± 02:31 | 01:42 ± 01:27 | ||
Particle board | 09:01 ± 00:31 | 04:56 ± 00:48 | 01:21 ± 00:31 | ||
Plywood | 07:55 ± 01:08 | 04:26 ± 01:35 | 00:56 ± 00:59 | ||
Emergency (> 200°C) | Fiberboard | 00:08 ± 00:05 | – | – | |
OSB | 00:33 ± 00:34 | – | – | ||
Pallets | 00:26 ± 00:30 | – | – | ||
Particle board | 00:06 ± 00:08 | – | – | ||
Plywood | 00:08 ± 00:10 | – | – |
3.2 Training Fire Environment Presentation with Different Fuel Packages
Fiberboard (%) | OSB (%) | Pallets (%) | Particle board (%) | Plywood (%) | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Flashover | |||||
Cycle 1 | 24 | 57 | 10 | 72 | 25 |
Cycle 2 | 50 | 93 | 18 | 91 | 66 |
Cycle 3 | 48 | 91 | 51 | 80 | 79 |
Cycle 4 | 9 | 70 | 41 | 61 | 53 |
Cycle 5 | 4 | 44 | 43 | 48 | 26 |
Cycle 6 | 0 | 22 | 18 | 11 | 9 |
Total % | 23 | 63 | 30 | 61 | 43 |
Localized rollover | |||||
Cycle 1 | 69 | 41 | 39 | 26 | 70 |
Cycle 2 | 43 | 6 | 59 | 9 | 28 |
Cycle 3 | 33 | 9 | 39 | 20 | 21 |
Cycle 4 | 41 | 30 | 53 | 37 | 36 |
Cycle 5 | 6 | 50 | 41 | 48 | 34 |
Cycle 6 | 4 | 54 | 22 | 59 | 9 |
Total % | 32 | 31 | 43 | 33 | 33 |
Surface burning | |||||
Cycle 1 | 7 | 2 | 51 | 2 | 6 |
Cycle 2 | 7 | 2 | 24 | 0 | 6 |
Cycle 3 | 19 | 0 | 10 | 0 | 0 |
Cycle 4 | 50 | 0 | 6 | 2 | 11 |
Cycle 5 | 91 | 6 | 16 | 4 | 40 |
Cycle 6 | 96 | 24 | 59 | 30 | 81 |
Total % | 45 | 6 | 27 | 6 | 24 |