Water is profoundly linked to the development and sustainability of all nations. It forms a natural connection across the Sustainable Development Goals, all sectors of the nexus, and even between countries. The Global Environment Facility (GEF) International Waters focal area realizes that the water, energy, and food nexus can be both a source of tension and an entry point for cooperation. The GEF works with island countries to tackle the nexus through an ecosystem-based approach known as Ridge to Reef (R2R). This chapter highlights some of the practical on-the-ground solutions demonstrated by national projects and how the GEF-UNDP Pacific Ridge to Reef Programme is creating entry points for enabling the water, energy, and food nexus that are aligned with the Sustainable Development Goal outcomes.
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Tackling the food-water-energy and ecosystem nexus in the Pacific through an ecosystem-based approach known as Ridge to Reef.
16.1 Introduction
16.1.1 Water-Energy-Food-Ecosystem Nexus And the Sustainable Development Goals
Adopted by Member States in 2015, the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development provides a shared blueprint for peace and prosperity for people and the planet. At its core are the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) which are an urgent call for action for a global partnership to end poverty, improve health and education, reduce inequality, and stimulate economic growth while simultaneously tackling climate change and preserving our natural environment (United Nations 2014). Achieving the SDGs requires all relevant stakeholders to work together and manage the synergies and trade-offs among different management or governance sectors including food, health, water, and energy (Rockström 2016). Balancing the trade-offs between immediate human needs and preserving ecosystems which provide critical functions requires integrated approaches and tools to achieve the SDGs successfully. Furthermore, for governments to manage these resources sustainably there needs to be a greater understanding and control of the dynamics linking policy decisions at the basin, local, regional, and national levels (Roidt and Strasser 2015). Ecosystem-based management, valuation of ecosystem services, natural capital, and integrated water resources management are approaches that have been developed to address these issues and can assist in the achievement of the SDGs (Liu et al. 2018). By emphasizing the importance of understanding synergies, connections, and trade-offs the concept of the water-food-energy-ecosystem nexus builds on and compliments these approaches (Liu et al. 2018).
Water is essential for all life and forms a natural connection across all sectors of the nexus and even between countries. It provides stability to ecosystems, is the underlying resource for the production of energy and food and is critical to peace and security (Roidt and Strasser 2015). Food as a component of the nexus includes the agricultural sector with sectoral priorities such as sustainable and climate smart value chains, sustainable and efficient water use, management of competing land usage, and sustainably meeting the sectors energy needs (Roidt and Strasser 2015). Sustainable development of energy sources could address trade-offs and should result in environmental benefits such as reduction of greenhouse gas emissions, mitigation of climate change, and reduced water demand (Roidt and Strasser 2015). Water, energy, and food are dependent on proper ecosystem functioning. Without this, the various sectors cannot attain freshwater for use, exploit valuable sources of energy, use them as sinks for pollution, and profit from them in agriculture (Roidt and Strasser 2015). While nexus efforts have mainly focused on terrestrial and freshwater ecosystems, marine ecosystems are also pivotal in providing food, energy, and other ecosystem services. While the trade-offs and synergies are still emerging, marine ecosystems play a vital role in contributing towards food security (fisheries and aquaculture), freshwater security (desalination), energy production (wave, tidal, and wind energy; offshore oil and gas), and ecosystem services (weather and climate regulation, cultural services, economic activity, primary production) (Liu et al. 2018).
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By their very nature, the SDGs have been designed to be interconnected such that action taken with regard to one of these goals is likely to have implications on one or more of the other goals. Thus, increasing evidence suggests that the water-food-energy-ecosystem nexus approach can influence the achievement of the SDGs both directly and indirectly (Fig. 16.1).
A cyclic diagram illustrates the S D G nexus approach. It includes three concentric circles with S D G signs that are numbered and labeled. The innermost circle has the ecosystem cycle with food, energy, and water. The second and the outermost circles have the numbered components.
Fig. 16.1
The sustainable development goals are directly or indirectly influenced by the water-food-energy-ecosystem nexus approach. Image adapted from Liu et al. (2018) and the UNECE Water Convention “A nexus approach to transboundary cooperation: The experience of the Water Convention” publication (2018)
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16.1.2 Financing Nexus Solutions: The Global Environment Facility
The Global Environment Facility (GEF) emerged from the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (Rio Earth Summit) as the key financial mechanism for the global environment. The GEF’s first operational strategy would establish partnerships among United Nations Agencies, the international environment conventions, and the participating countries, which were necessary to tackle urgent global environmental concerns. This strategy also placed priority on development of monitoring and evaluation approaches to support the capture and sharing of lessons learned from investments. This initially involved definition of overarching objectives and result areas for focal areas including biological diversity, climate change, and international waters. These were further elaborated in a suite of related operational programs. Fundamental to this was the recognition that success of the GEF mandate required the application of innovative and experimental approaches to efforts aimed at reversing global environmental degradation trends.
16.1.2.1 Overview of the GEF International Waters (IW) Focal Area
The GEF is the largest funding mechanism for multi-country collaboration on water and oceans with 156 GEF recipient countries and 24 non-recipient countries working together to manage their transboundary water resources. The GEF International Waters (IW) focal area has a unique mandate to support transboundary cooperation in shared water bodies including rivers, lakes, aquifers, and large marine ecosystems (for Small Island Developing States (SIDS), the specific GEF IW approach is elaborated on in Sect. 16.2.1.1). Actions of this support include the conduct of a Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis to identify environmental concerns for shared water bodies; the formulation of a Strategic Action Programme to address priority transboundary concerns; and technical assistance, capacity building, and demonstration and pilot activities. This focus on transboundary concerns naturally leads to emphasis on multi-country projects, often in areas characterized by significant geo-political tensions. Such projects have invested considerably in efforts to build trust and capacity to manage shared resources among the participating countries in working together to plan and implement actions aimed at reversing environmental degradation trends. Success has largely been measured on the effectiveness of investments in securing the highest levels of political commitment and financial support for the required policy and legal reforms and actions to address a diverse range of transboundary issues associated with habitat degradation and loss, over-exploitation of fish stocks, land-based pollution, and securing shared freshwater resources.
16.1.2.2 The GEF Strategy And Nexus
In shared basins, cooperation can assure greater water, energy, food, and ecosystems security compared to unilateral development options. Enhanced economic ties and multi-level interactions among countries sharing a basin/sub-region lessen the likelihood of conflict. The GEF IW focal area realizes that the water-energy-food-ecosystems nexus dimensions can be both a source of tension and an entry point for cooperation. The GEF-7 Investment (2018–2022) specifically addresses the inclusion of the ecosystem dimension into the GEF Topic “Water, Energy, Land, and Ecosystem Nexus” (hereafter the water-energy-food-ecosystem nexus) and increasing environmental security. GEF-7 Investments in the water, energy, land, and ecosystem nexus supports supply chain approaches, water efficiency, de-risk innovation, nature-based approaches, protecting and rehabilitating aquatic ecosystems, establishing minimum environmental flows, sustaining freshwater fisheries and aquaculture, and supporting fragile/conflict affected countries. The business of water is complex as it cuts across multiple economic sectors (Global Environment Facility 2020a). Both the quality and quantity of water resources have to be addressed taking into account the entire water-energy-food-ecosystem nexus to ensure that sustainability is achieved across the whole system from the source to the ocean (Global Environment Facility 2020b). These “Source-to-Sea” linkages are engrained in the GEF IW portfolio, as surface water eventually impacts the integrity of coastal habitats with knock-on effects in spawning grounds, livelihoods of coastal populations, and ultimately the wider ocean that captures all the impacts from land-based activities (Global Environment Facility 2020b).
Realizing the increase in demand on water, food, energy, and ecosystem services, the GEF engages in integrated approaches across sectoral and focal area dimensions to help achieve the SDGs and sustainable use of resources on a global, regional, national, and local scale.
16.2 The Nexus Approach Through the GEF IW Portfolio: Global Perspective
The GEF in partnership with the United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO) and the International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis (IIASA) have been engaging in the Integrated Solutions for Water, Energy, and Land (ISWEL) project that explored cost effective solutions to jointly meet water, land, and energy demands under different development and climate pathways. While this project zooms in on two large transboundary basins (the Zambezi and Indus), it also took a global approach where tools and methodologies have been developed which are transferrable to other regions, potentially including SIDS.
The economic, social, and environmental systems of SIDS are highly vulnerable due to their characteristically small size, high population density, remoteness, vulnerability to external effects, narrow resource base, and exposure to global environmental challenges such as climate change (UNEP 2014). Given these tremendous challenges, the water-energy-food-ecosystems nexus approach could be particularly beneficial for achieving and embedding sustainability in SIDS.
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16.2.1 The Nexus Approach Through the GEF IW Portfolio: Regional Small Island Developing States Perspectives
16.2.1.1 GEF IW and Small Island Developing States
Small Island Developing States settings differ widely from the large transboundary water systems in which the majority of GEF investments are focused. Water related issues in SIDS are rarely what are widely understood to be ‘transboundary’ in nature. The GEF strategy captured these differences by building on the 1994 Barbados Programme of Action which recognized that SIDS share common water and coastal management problems. GEF international waters projects in SIDS have therefore focused on addressing common problems shared by small island communities in the Caribbean, Pacific, and Africa. Most aspects of environmental management in SIDS are directly dependent on, or influenced by, the planning and utilization of land resources, which in turn are closely linked to coastal zone management and protection. The GEF is working with island countries to tackle the food-water-energy-ecosystem nexus through an ecosystem-based approach known as Ridge to Reef (Global Environment Facility 2017a, b). This approach is designed to reverse the degradation of coastal resources by finding ways to reduce the flow of untreated wastewater, chemicals, nutrients and sediments from land-based agriculture, forestry, and development into catchment areas. Consequently, under a Ridge to Reef approach, Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM) and Integrated Coastal Management (ICM) plans come together to inform long-term sustainable use of the natural resources while limiting the impact on the fragile environment which is further described in Table 16.1 (Global Environment Facility 2017a, b).
Table 16.1
The GEF Pacific Ridge to Reef approach entry points for enabling the water-energy-food-ecosystem (WEFE) nexus via integrated water resources management (IWRM). Table adapted from The Pacific Integrated Water Resources Management Programme Brochure (2008)
Sector
Entry point for enabling a WEFE Nexus approach
Related SDGs
Industry
•Balance industrial and public water resources demands
•Ensure effective industrial water use, reuse (intra- and inter-sectorial) and avoid wastage
•Regulate industrial pollution to protect water resources
Five S D G signages are numbered and labeled as follows. 6, clean water and sanitation. 9, industry, innovation, and infrastructure. 12, responsible consumption and production. 13, climate action. 14, life below water.
Utilities and Energy
•Install and maintain infrastructure for water supply and sewerage to ensure that water gets from source to intended use in good quality and sufficient quantity, and to prevent pollution from wastewater
•Monitor water availability and use in order to match water supply to demand
•Mitigate effects from hydropower installations on ecosystems and communities through integrated watershed management, and balance water demands for energy generation and public supply
Six S D G signages are numbered and labeled as follows. 6, clean water and sanitation. 7, affordable and clean energy. 9, industry, innovation and infrastructure. 12, responsible consumption and production. 13, climate action. 14, life below water.
Fisheries and Marine
•Monitor effects from run-off and land-based activities on coastal ecosystem health and fisheries production
•Protect important fisheries spawning and nursery areas in coastal waters and rivers
4 S D G signages are numbered and labeled as follows. 2, zero hunger. 6, clean water and sanitation. 14, life below water. 15, life on land.
Agriculture and Forestry
•Adapt agricultural and forestry practices (species, land-use practices, and agrochemicals) to rainfall, land features, soil quality and water availability, in order to ensure efficient water use, soil conservation and reduction of run-off of sediment, nutrients, pesticides, etc
5 S D G signages are numbered and labeled as follows. 2, zero hunger. 6, clean water and sanitation. 12, responsible consumption and production. 14, life below water. 15, life on land.
Environment and Planning
•Regulate impacts of developments on water resources (e.g., in Environmental Impact Assessments)
•Consider water resources in urban, rural, and land-use planning, and minimise flooding
•Include water harvesting and wastewater standards in building codes
•Monitor and protect the health of water environments and create protection areas where necessary
5 S D G signages are numbered and labeled as follows. 6, clean water and sanitation. 12, responsible consumption and production. 13, climate action. 14, life below water. 15, life on land.
In total, the GEF has provided more than USD 578 million to SIDS in country allocated finance across all focal areas. In addition, SIDS participated in a significant number of regional and global projects and programs that overall totalled an additional USD 810 million.1 GEF finance has leveraged several times that amount in additional resources for sustainable development (Global Environment Facility 2018). The current GEF 7 funding cycle (2018–2022) continues to provide strong support and an emphasis on the needs of SIDS and Least Developed Countries (LDCs). Major international conferences and agreements have supported SIDS, and their collective cooperation provides them with a powerful voice to engage at the global level (GEF LME:LEARN 2020). A common trait shared by SIDS are their increasing vulnerability to environmental and economic disasters. Recognizing their collective strength, SIDS have developed innovative regional management mechanisms such as the Caribbean Community, Indian Ocean Commission, and Pacific Islands Forum which are helping to address the high impact of climate change and foster resilience (GEF LME:LEARN 2020). In the Pacific, the world’s largest stocks of tuna and related pelagic species falls within the national jurisdiction of 22 SIDS and overseas territories, making them the custodians of a major international waters ecosystem (Degger et al. 2021). Their strong cooperation, with support of the GEF funded Pacific Islands Oceanic Fisheries Management Project implemented by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and managed by the Pacific Island Forum Fisheries Agency (FFA), led to the negotiation of the Western and Central Pacific Fisheries Convention and a Commission for the sustainable use and long-term conservation of these significant fish stocks (GEF PIOFMP 2022).
16.2.1.2 Water, Energy, and Food Nexus: A Caribbean Perspective
If necessity is the mother of invention, then the Caribbean should be way ahead of the curve when it comes to the WEF Nexus (Cashman personal communication). Electricity generation has relied on fossil fuel imports that have placed a heavy demand on foreign currency reserves and prices have been high. The Caribbean is a net importer of food, some 80% is imported and in most countries, agriculture’s contribution to economies continues to decline. Water too is becoming problematic with seemingly increasing frequency of drought conditions affecting water supplies (Cashman personal communication). However, the use of renewable energy has doubled in the last five years; some are developing geothermal power whilst others, solar power with the aim of transitioning to 100% renewables. This is good news for the water sector, which is one of the biggest users of power (Cashman personal communication). Lower power costs will benefit both energy and water consumers including the ability to provide for those with affordability or access difficulties. Indeed, some water utilities are looking to become power producers themselves, cutting their electricity costs and reinvesting the savings in upgrading their infrastructure to reduce water losses. Another example is the use of thin film solar panels as greenhouse covering and the harvesting of rainwater off the panels (Cashman personal communication). The rainwater is used to water plants whilst the power generated is used to cool the greenhouse and runs the computerized irrigation system, producing high value crops for the local market, which would otherwise have to be imported. Such developments are opening up new markets and opportunities and attracting youth into agriculture (Cashman personal communication).
16.2.1.3 Water, Energy, and Food Nexus: A Pacific Perspective
In SIDS the land, water, and coastal ecological systems are closely inter-connected. Pacific Island Countries have uniquely fragile water resources due to their small size, lack of natural storage, competing land use, and vulnerability to natural hazards. In most Pacific countries, even small variations in water supply can have a significant impact on health, quality of life, and economic development. Recognizing this connectivity is key to fostering effective cross-sectoral coordination in the planning and management of land, water, forest, and coastal uses by integrating freshwater watershed management with coastal area management. This integrated approach to freshwater and coastal area management have been termed ‘Ridge to Reef’ to emphasize the inter-connections between the natural and social systems from the mountain ‘ridges’ of volcanic islands, through coastal watersheds and habitats, and across coastal lagoons to the fringing ‘reef’ environments. For low-lying atolls and islands, the same concept of Ridge to Reef is the entire land-sea interface and with specific connectivity across land, water, and coastal areas. Inherent in the approach is the philosophy of cross-sectoral coordination in the planning and management of freshwater use, sanitation, wastewater treatment and pollution control, sustainable land use and forestry practices, balancing coastal livelihoods and biodiversity conservation, hazard risk reduction, and climate variability and change. Similarly, the integration of communities, stakeholders, and national governments within such a cross-sectoral planning framework is described by Pacific SIDS as a ‘Community to Cabinet’ approach.
Water resource and wastewater management is a key element of efforts to fashion sustainable futures for Pacific SIDS (Paterson personal communication). Generally, limited surface and groundwater water resources (see Chap. 2) and a reliance on rain fed agriculture results in island livelihoods and economies being highly dependent on rainfall (Paterson personal communication). In addition to the reliance of Pacific SIDs on the effective use and management of rainwater, coastal, and marine habitats2 resources are also critically important to islands (Paterson personal communication). Pacific SIDS, however, face considerable challenges in guiding the sustainable use of these resources and achieving interlinked SDG target due to the close linkages between and among land, water, and coastal systems on small islands (Paterson personal communication).
16.2.1.4 GEF Pacific Ridge to Reef Programme
The Heads of States of 13 Pacific SIDS developed and, in 1997, endorsed a GEF International Waters Strategic Action Programme (SAP) for Pacific Island Countries. The document identified priority areas for action in the international waters focal area as improved management of ocean and coastal fisheries, integrated watershed and coastal management, and water supply protection. On the basis of the Pacific SAP, the GEF International Waters focal area has subsequently invested in a series of regional initiatives. The first was the UNDP implemented project titled “Implementation of the Strategic Action Program for the International Waters of the Pacific Small Island Developing States” initiated between 2000 and 2006. GEF support in the years following the conclusion of the IW project has been targeted at improved coordination and planning of water resource and wastewater management to balance overuse and conflicting uses of scarce freshwater resources through the GEF Pacific IWRM Project. The latter was financed by the GEF, implemented by UNDP and United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), and executed regionally by the Geoscience Division of the Pacific Community (SPC) in partnership with 14 Pacific Island Countries (GEF Pacific Ridge to Reef Programme 2020).
The experience and local capacity in integrated environmental and natural resource management generated through the GEF Pacific IWRM project has been recognized both regionally and within the 14 participating Pacific Island Countries as an appropriate entry point for the testing of innovative approaches and measures to integrate land, forest, water, and coastal management, including climate change adaptation in Pacific SIDS. The GEF Pacific IWRM Project built on achievements of the International Waters Project (IWP) via a focus on national IWRM demonstration projects aimed at providing an opportunity to participating countries to implement, and experiment with, new management models and methods. The national projects built local experience and capacity in project implementation, cross-sectoral coordination, and the conduct of water resource and socio-economic assessments and studies needed to contribute to more sustainable management of water resources. From this, the knowledge, experiences and best practices generated through project execution were captured, shared, and used to guide the development of national water and sanitation policies and IWRM plans. The practical on-the-ground solutions to water and sanitation issues demonstrated by the national IWRM projects acted to simulate support at both community and national government levels for policy reform and the mainstreaming of an IWRM approach as part of national development planning. Key anticipated outputs of this process are national IWRM Plans to guide full-scale IWRM (Paterson personal communication).
As a result, the GEF multi-focal area, multi-GEF agency $90 million programme titled “Pacific Islands Ridge-to-Reef National Priorities – Integrated Water, Land, Forest and Coastal Management to Preserve Biodiversity, Ecosystem Services, Store Carbon, Improve Climate Resilience and Sustain Livelihoods” or GEF Pacific R2R Programme, was developed (Fig. 16.2). This programme provides an opportunity for Pacific SIDS to develop and implement truly integrated approaches for the sustainable development of island economies and communities (GEF Pacific Ridge to Reef Programme 2020). A “whole of ecosystem” and “whole of island” approach ensures that policy, multiple sectors, agencies, and community interests are properly considered and integrated in the planning and management of resources. This also includes increasing attention to gender perspectives and ensuring that measures are taken so that decision-making is reached through the participation of men and women as per the GEF Policy on Gender Equality Global Environment Facility (2017b).
An illustration depicts the interconnection between the National Star funded R 2 R projects and Regional I W funded Pacific R to R Program. The G E F focal areas contributing to the relevant sustainable development goals are also labeled.
Fig. 16.2
The programmatic approach of the Regional GEF funded Pacific Ridge to Reef programme. Image adapted from the Pacific Ridge to Reef “How we operate” infographic (Pacific Ridge to Reef 2020)
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As part of the project, participating countries have the opportunity to strengthen their capacity to successfully demonstrate and transfer technology to support targeted vulnerable areas, improve livelihoods and public health, and upscale their effective mainstreaming efforts to support countries in achieving their sustainable development goals.
In this programme, the Pacific Island Countries emphasize the need to focus on their own priority national activities as they utilize System for Transparent Allocation of Resources (STAR) resources. Experience has shown that an integrated approach from ridge to reef is necessary for poverty reduction, sustainability, and capacity enhancement for small countries with few human resources to undertake projects. The national demonstration projects have produced direct local environmental results and benefits, and health co-benefits, from changes in practice. The examples below highlight the results of the approach.
Federated States of Micronesia (FSM): National Perspective
The Federated States of Micronesia (FSM) consist of four major island groups with over 600 islands in the northern Pacific. These vary geographically from high mountainous islands to low lying coral atoll and volcanic outcroppings on Pohnpei, Kosrae, and Chuuk (Federated States of Micronesia National R2R Programme 2020). About 60% of water resources in FSM exist as surface water in the form of small, intermittent streams that drain catchment areas of limited aerial extent and are dry for about 20% of the year. The topography in the stream basins is not conducive to the construction of economical dams and requires extensive and costly treatment. The remaining 40% of the islands’ water resources exist as groundwater. Many households use roof catchments, which are particularly prevalent in the outer islands where there is no piped water (Federated States of Micronesia National R2R Programme 2020). All of the four focal islands have coastal mangrove fringes and development is largely focused on the coast with minimal interior development. The natural vegetative cover is dense on all islands and has not generally been disrupted for intensive agriculture use (Federated States of Micronesia National R2R Programme 2020).
The objective of the first GEF IWRM demonstration project in FSM (operational 2009–2014) was the improvement of drinking water quality and significant reduction in pollutants entering fresh and marine water around Pohnpei and Chuuk States. Significant progress in strengthening national coordination between the water and sanitation sector and development of a National Water and Sanitation Policy and IWRM Plan was achieved through the project. This was in part enabled via the conduct of a FSM National Water Summit during which the FSM President, State Governors, and a representative of the Nation’s traditional leaders signed a joint resolution establishing a National Water Task Force and endorsing a Framework National Water and Sanitation Policy. The project further supported this effort to develop an FSM National Water, Sanitation, and Climate Outlook aimed at informing national policy development and IWRM Planning. The First National Water Task Force Meeting was convened from 23 to 24 May 2012, and in addition to review and agreement on the Task Force Terms of Reference, a program for development of the National Water Policy and IWRM was discussed and agreed. This has been followed up by several State based working group meetings to consider and develop inputs to the broader National process (Shed 2014).
Under the current national GEF IWRM Micronesia project (operational 2015-present), the focus is on supporting expansion of both marine and terrestrial protected areas in all four Micronesian states, complemented by support to integrated ecosystem management and restoration outside protected areas to enhance ridge to reef connectivity. For example, Kosrae’s coastal environment provides its best and most effective defence against climate related hazards. The wellbeing of coastal environment is dependent upon the degree that anthropogenic activities affect the area from Ridge through to Reef. Preservation of catchments and in particular upland areas is vital to the maintenance of quality surface and groundwater inflows to the coastal areas. Likewise, the maintenance of a quality coastal environment offers improved sustainability for lagoonal and reef resources vital to food security (Federated States of Micronesia National R2R Programme 2020). The need to preserve and protect Kosrae’s Coastal Environment has resulted in the development of a comprehensive Shoreline Management Plan, which has been endorsed by the Kosrae Government (Federated States of Micronesia National R2R Programme 2020). Some of the above issues have begun to be addressed through the cross-sectoral planning and management initiatives of the GEF Pacific IWRM Project. These include improving land use practices, reducing pathogen and nutrient contamination of ground and coastal waters, assessing Kosrae’s freshwater resources, establishing community-based management of waterways and enhancing community and national level awareness of best practice in sustainable management (Federated States of Micronesia National R2R Programme 2020).
Currently the GEF STAR Ridge to Reef project (operational 2016-present) is supporting the implementation of the Pohnpei State Water Policy, which was endorsed in 2018 (Yatilman personal communication). According to the first Voluntary National Review (FSM Voluntary National Review 2019), the Federated States of Micronesia has committed to implementing Agenda 2030 at the national level and within the four island states of Kosrae, Pohnpei, Chuuk, and Yap. The country has identified 89 SDG targets, with an accompanying 90 SDG indicators, linked to the FSM Strategic Development Plan 2004–2023 (SDP). This national strategy seeks to achieve sustainable economic growth and self-reliance by prioritizing sustainable development through the sectors of health, education, agriculture, fisheries, private sector development, transportation, communication, and the cross-cutting sector of energy, many having their own policies that align to the SDP and SDGs (FSM Voluntary National Review 2019).
Fiji: National Perspective
Fiji’s ecosystem services are provided by the country's diverse natural resources, ranging from terrestrial to coastal and marine ecosystems. Like many Pacific Island Countries, Fiji represents a microcosm of some of the most significant development and environmental challenges facing the world. It comprises more than 332 islands, about one-third of which are inhabited, with a total land area of 18,333 km2 in a vast 1.6 million km2 marine Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ). Fiji's environment has been in a bad state, particularly for domestic water due to wastewater releases, poorly sited toilets and/or overuse of fertilizer in upstream communities and farms that pollute coastal waters, create outbreaks of disease, and contaminate sensitive groundwater supplies. The GEF has compounded its financial support to the government through the Ridge to Reef Programme in the GEF 5 STAR allocation to address some of these concerns.
The objective of the first GEF IWRM Nadi Demonstration Project was to improve flood preparedness and integrate land and water management planning within the Nadi Basin using an integrated flood risk management approach (Kumar 2012). Prior to the project inception there was no existing mechanism that could embrace a holistic approach to address issues within the Nadi Basin. Though the political climate of Fiji made some provision under its ‘People’s Charter’, there was no basis to bring people to one table. Hence, the GEF IWRM project initiated the process of getting agencies together into a formal group (Kumar 2012). A catchment Management Committee was established and endorsed by the cabinet. Through a periodic participatory consultation process, the project activities were refined, and a monitoring and evaluation plan was endorsed. Furthermore, the process of developing an Integrated Flood Management Plan saw progress in capacity building, development and strengthening of a number of institutions in itself (Kumar 2012). Key achievements include the establishment of the Nadi Basin Catchment Committee with its four subcommittees, development of Standard Operating Procedures for Nadi Flood Warning, the establishment of 14 Community-Based Disaster Management Committees, and the development of community disaster response plans (Kumar 2012).
Currently, the GEF Operational Focal Point Portfolio for Fiji has six National Projects being implemented by UNDP in close conjunction with the Ministry of Local Government, Housing and Environment. Fiji’s GEF R2R project (operational 2015-present) focuses on enhancing integrated management of a series of forested watersheds to protect land, water, forest, and biodiversity resources, maintain carbon stocks, and protect coastal mangrove and coral reef Marine Protected Areas (MPAs).
As a nation, Fiji has adopted a ‘whole-of-Government’ approach and has utilized national development planning as the primary instrument to drive forward implementation of the SDGs (Fiji Voluntary National Review 2019). In 2017, The Fijian Government launched its National Development Plan (NDP), the outcome of a nationwide consultation process that involved the private sector, civil society, community groups, government, and the general public reflecting the aspirations of the Fijian people and their government’s commitment for a transformed Fiji (Fiji Voluntary National Review 2019). At the sector level, the SDGs have already been integrated into sectoral strategic plans and policies in many sectors including but not limited to education, health, and agriculture (Fiji Voluntary National Review 2019). Fiji also recognizes that, while government holds the important responsibility for achieving the SDGs, it is in everyone’s interest and everyone’s responsibility including private individuals, private enterprises, NGOs, and CSOs to advance the sustainable development agenda (Fiji Voluntary National Review 2019).
Samoa: National Perspective
Samoa consists of two main islands, Upolu and Savaii, and seven islets. Of the population of 180,000 people, approximately two thirds live on Upolu, and of them approximately 40,000 live in the capital Apia. Not surprisingly the land use in and around Apia is greatly modified from its natural state, with urban development in the coastal plain and low foothills, and peri-urban development and commercial agriculture in the watersheds.
The objective of the GEF IWRM national project (operational 2009–2014) in Samoa was to rehabilitate and manage the Apia Catchment in a sustainable manner in order to improve the quality and quantity of the water resources for enhanced water supply, hydropower generation, social-economic advancement and reduced environmental adverse impacts. The focus of the project was on identifying and rehabilitating vulnerable areas upstream of rivers and it is enforced by the endorsement of catchment Watershed Management Plans as directed by the Water Resources Act (Semisi 2014). The IWRM Stakeholders consultation process developed by the project brought benefits for water resource and catchment management with continuous attendance from many stakeholders, each contributing feedback on, and suggestions for the project activities (Semisi 2014). Participation of stakeholders in planning and monitoring has increased ownership over IWRM concepts and activities. An important result of this was agreement on the Watershed Safety plan for Fuluasou, and actions for dealing with the many issues around its intake and supply had been identified and prioritized for implementation (Semisi 2014). This is significant as Fuluasou Treatment Plan supplies 70,000 people and suffers from many problems such as overcapacity, shortage of chlorine, pump failure, and high non-revenue water (NRW) rates. Watershed Management Plans (WMPs) for Loimata o Apaula, Gasegase, and Fuluasou catchments (3 of the 4 catchments in the Apia Catchment) were also drafted for management approval (Semisi 2014). The WMPs give authority to the Water Resources Division to enforce specified directives and prosecute any illegal activities. These efforts were supported by awareness and education activities on World Water Day annually and have been successful in raising the profile and visibility of GEF Pacific IWRM Samoa (Semisi 2014). Led by the GEF IWRM project, the Watershed Conservation Policy (where the top 600 m of the country land are excluded from any developments) brought positive feedback from some sectors especially the Water Authority who were struggling to accommodate for the water demands of people living on the highland (Semisi 2014).
For the current GEF IWRM project (operational 2015-present), a consultative Hot Spot Analysis identified the Apia Catchment as the demonstration site because of the severe degradation and serious water quality issues. Water and energy demand is increasing with population wealth, and despite considerable effort in water demand management measures, including metering, leakage detection and repair, tariff incentives and conservation awareness campaigns, per capita consumption of water and power are predicted to rise (Samoa National R2R Programme 2020).
Samoa has undertaken their second Voluntary National Review (VNR) to assess the progress on implementation of the SDGs. Since the first report, Samoa has improved integration of the SDGs into national processes for better data collection, monitoring and evaluation, development assistance and other international obligations (Samoa 2nd Voluntary National Review 2020). The second VNR reports near universal access of the population to safe drinking water, sanitation, and electricity services; however, the challenge is to maintain and improve the quality of water and sanitation and ensure more clean energy consumption. Overall, there is low level of extreme hunger and undernourishment, but nutrition security is a concern. One in five people are considered moderately food insecure with 2.4% of people considered severely food insecure. The challenge in Samoa is access to and affordability of locally produced healthy foods especially when there is ready access to cheaper processed food-imports often of lower nutritional value (Samoa 2nd Voluntary National Review 2020).
16.3 Conclusion
With the completion of the first GEF Pacific IWRM project in 2015, a foundation was built which paved the way for Pacific Island Countries to address their environmental issues more holistically by employing the Ridge to Reef approach that facilitates a water, energy, and food nexus framework at a basin level. Significant emphasis is placed on national demonstration projects with the aim of providing an opportunity for participating countries to implement and experiment with management models and methods. When considering the inter-relationships between water, food, energy, and the environment, the Ridge to Reef approach starts with the water resource. While the nexus approach seeks to look at all the elements as an interrelated system, when confronted with data, modelling, governance, and capacity constraints this becomes a hugely challenging task for developing countries to undertake. The practical on-the-ground solutions demonstrated by the national projects have galvanized support at both the community and national government levels for policy reform and mainstreaming the Ridge to Reef approach as part of national development planning. This has created valuable entry points for strengthening cross-cutting, cross-sectoral, integrated approaches to resource management across the Pacific SIDS which are aligned to the SDG outcomes.
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Figures reflected in the text are derived from 2018 as observed in the Global Environment Facility publication “Small Island Developing States and the Global Environment Facility: Building Lasting Partnerships”.
