6. Between Hard and Soft: Active Defense Countermeasures

This chapter advances two perspectives. First, as with other strategies to deter cyber attacks, there are challenges we need to know about efforts to run active defense as a means of deterrence. They include resource constraints, legal, normative, and technical limitations, and the possibility of retaliation. Second, even then, active defense measures offer a pragmatic option for democracies when it comes to cyber deterrence. I show that they enable defenders to discourage digital intransigence while suppressing forces of escalation. Relative to the other strategies we have examined, active defense strategy goes in the middle of intensity between “soft” measures (denial defense and international rules) and “hard” ones like punishment.