2. Political and Psychological Processes Contributing to European Populisms of the Left and Right

Populism, as a general belief system, is thought to combine an idealistic view of “the people,” a cynical view of “the elites” as hopelessly corrupt, and a Manichean conception of “good” versus “evil.” Understood in this way, it stands to reason that certain psychological variables would predict the endorsement of populist attitudes, even after adjusting for demographic factors. Studies show that authoritarianism, conscientiousness, and openness are positively associated with support for populism in general, whereas system justification, agreeableness, and neuroticism are negatively associated with support for populism in general. In contexts as diverse as France, Germany, and the UK, we find that system justification, conceptualized as a motivation to defend and bolster the societal status quo, is associated with decreased support for populist parties on the right and left—even for respondents who are high in economic distress, ethnic intolerance, opposition to the European Union, and support for income redistribution. At the same time, there are clearly meaningful psychological differences between supporters of left-wing vs. right-wing populists. In the context of France, authoritarianism and social dominance orientation are positively associated with support for Marine Le Pen on the right but negatively associated with support for Jean-Luc Mélenchon on the left. In the context of Spain, both left-wing and right-wing populist parties invoke nationalist themes, but in quite different ways. Whereas right-wing populism is exclusionary, left-wing populism—as exemplified by Podemos in its early years—emphasizes citizen mobilization, an inclusive welfare state, and a moral community that transcends ethnolinguistic boundaries. We conclude that there is not one populism, but at least two major types of populism that share key features of non-populist ideologies of the left and right.